Assessment of the Physico-Chemical Characteristics, Phytochemicals, Biological Activities, and Soap-Making Process Using the Pulp and Seed Oils of Avocados (Persea americana)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.56919/usci.2541.045Keywords:
Antimicrobial activity, Agricultural-waste utilization, Green chemistry, Persea Americana, Phytochemicals, Sustainable cosmeticsAbstract
Study’s Excerpt:
• Agar diffusion tests showed the soaps had strong antimicrobial activity against all tested microbes.
• Tannins, saponins, alkaloids, and flavonoids were identified as active phytochemicals in the plant.
• Phytochemicals in the plant contribute to medicinal benefits and disease-fighting capabilities.
Full Abstract:
Using green chemistry concepts to promote sustainability and local economic development, this study investigates the potential of avocado (Persea Americana) pulp and seed oils for the creation of environmentally friendly herbal antimicrobial soaps. Oils were extracted via Soxhlet apparatus, yielding 23.4% (seed) and 16.2% (pulp), and characterized for physicochemical properties. The soaps demonstrated pH values between 10.31 and 10.8, foam heights of 2.3–3.2 cm, and total fatty matter ranging from 68.4% to 89.1%, exceeding commercial standards (65.0%). Phytochemical screening revealed that tannins, saponins, and alkaloids contribute to antimicrobial efficacy. The AVSP soap (a blend of pulp and seed oils) exhibited significant antimicrobial activity, including a 21 mm inhibition zone against Escherichia coli and inhibition of multiple microorganisms such as Bacillus subtilis and Phijoptius stoloniter across all tested concentrations. These findings distinguish AVSP soap as a superior sustainable alternative, addressing environmental challenges posed by synthetic cosmetics and promoting agro-waste conversion into valuable commercial products. This research provides a practical approach for integrating natural resources into sustainable cosmetic formulations with potential global hygiene and environmental conservation applications.
References
Ahmed, O., & Mohammad, A. (2014). Qualitative and quantitative analysis of phytochemicals of Loranthus bengwensis leaf. International Research Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 5(1), 1-3.
Ameh, A. O., Muhammad, J. A., & Audu, H. G. (2013). Synthesis and characterization of antiseptic soap from neem oil and Shea butter oil. African Journal of Biotechnology, 12(29), 4656-4662.
AOAC. (1980). Official methods of analysis (13th ed.). Association of Official Analytical Chemists.
Atolani, O., & Olatunji, G. A. (2016). Chemical composition, antioxidant and cytotoxicity potential of Daniellia oliveri (Rolfe) Hutch. & Dalz. Turkish Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 13(1), 84-94. https://doi.org/10.5505/tjps.2016.55265
Beetseh, C., & Anza, M. (2013). Chemical characterization of black soap (Chahul Mtse) made by using cassava peels ashes (alkali base) and palm oil in North Central Zone of Nigeria. Journal of Chemical Characteristics of Local Black Soap, 3, 82-93.
Betsy, K. J., Mary, J., Reshma, F., & Jaya, T. V. (2013). Determination of alkali content and total fatty matter in cleansing agent. Asian Journal of Science and Applied Technology, 2, 8-12. https://doi.org/10.51983/ajsat-2013.2.1.755
Chuanchen, R., Beinlich, K., Hoang, T. T., Becher, A., Karkhoff-Schweizer, R. R., & Schweizer, H. P. (2001). Cross-resistance between triclosan and antibiotics is mediated by multidrug efflux pumps: exposure of a susceptible mutant strain to triclosan selects nfxb mutants over-expressing MexCD-Opr J. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 45, 428-432. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.45.2.428-432.2001
Cushnie, T. P., & Lamb, A. J. (2005). Antimicrobial activity of flavonoids. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, 26, 343-356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2005.09.002
Dreher, M. L., & Davenport, A. J. (2013). Hass avocado composition and potential health effects. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 53(7), 738-750. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2011.556759
Esther, C. (2020). Soap pH indications. Artizsoap. https://artizsoap.com/soap-ph-indications/
Fathima, A., Varma, S., Jagannath, P., & Akash, M. (2011). General review on herbal cosmetics. International Journal of Drug Formulation and Research, 2(5), 140-165.
Ford, N. A., Spagnuolo, P., Kraft, J., & Bauer, E. (2023). Nutritional composition of hass avocado pulp. Foods, 12(13), Article 2516. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12132516
Hamad, G. M., Taha, T. H., Alshehri, A., & El-deeb, N. M. (2016). Myrrh as a functional food with therapeutic properties against colon cancer in traditional meals. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.12963
Ghosal, S., Krishna-Prasad, B. N., & Laksmi, V. (1996). Antiamoebic activity of Piper longum fruits against Entamoeba histolytica in vivo. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 50, 167-170. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(96)01382-7
Heatley, N. G. (1944). A method for the assay of penicillin. Biochemical Journal, 38, 61-65. https://doi.org/10.1042/bj0380061
Ibrahim, S., Sule, F. A., Warra, A. A., Bello, F., Fakai, I. M., & Abdulhamid, A. (2013). Phytochemicals and mineral elements composition of white Sesamum indicum L. seed oil. International Journal of Traditional and Natural Medicines, 2(2), 118-130.
Joshi, L. S., & Pawal, H. A. (2015). Herbal cosmetics and cosmeceuticals: an overview. Natural Products Chemistry & Research, 3(2), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.18035/emj.v3i1.261
Jutamas, M., Worasaung, K., & Thanida, C. (2023). Physicochemical properties, antioxidant capacity, and consumer acceptability of ice cream incorporated with avocado (Persea Americana Mill.) pulp. Polish Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences, 73(3), 289-296. https://doi.org/10.31883/pjfns/170938
Kapoor, V. P. (2005). Herbal cosmetics for skin and hair care. Natural Product Radiance, 4(4), 306-314.
Krumreich, F. D., Borges, C. D., Mendonça, C. R. B., Jansen-Alves, C., & Zambiazi, R. C. (2018). Bioactive compounds and quality parameters of avocado oil obtained by different processes. Food Chemistry, 257, 376-381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.03.048
Larson, E. (1988). A causal link between hand washing and risk of infection? Examine the evidence. Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology, 9, 28-36. https://doi.org/10.1086/645729
Levy, S. B. (2001). Antibacterial household products: cause for concern. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7, 512-515. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0707.017705
Lyu, X., Agar, O. T., Barrow, C. J., Dunshea, F. R., & Suleria, H. A. R. (2023). Phenolic compounds profiling and their antioxidant capacity in the peel, pulp, and seed of Australian grown avocado. Antioxidants, 12(1), Article 185. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox12010185
Mahmassani, H. A., Avendano, E. E., Raman, G., & Johnson, E. J. (2018). Avocado consumption and risk factors for heart disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 107(4), 523-536. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqx078
Mak-Mensah, E. E., & Firempong, C. K. (2011). Chemical characteristics of toilet soap prepared from neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) seed oil. Asian Journal of Plant Science and Research, 1(4), 1-7.
Marlett, J. A., & Cheung, T. F. (1997). Database and quick methods of assessing typical dietary fiber intakes using data for 228 commonly consumed foods. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 97(10), 1139-1151. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8223(97)00275-7
Mbatchou, V. C., & Kosoono, I. (2012). Aphrodisiac activity of oils from Anacardium occidentale L. seeds. Phytopharmacology- International Journal of Phytotherapy and Bioactive Natural Products, 2, 81-91.
McDevitt, J. T., Schneider, D. M., Katiyar, S. K., & Edlind, F. S. (1996). Berberina: a candidate for the treatment of diarrhea in AIDS patients [Abstract]. In Program and Abstracts of the 36th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. American Society for Microbiology.
Mwambete, K. D., & Lyombe, F. (2011). Antimicrobial activity of medicated soaps commonly used by Dar es Salaam residents in Tanzania. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 73, 92-98. https://doi.org/10.4103/0250-474X.89765
Nester, M. T., Anderson, D. G., Roberts, C. E., Pearsall, N. N., & Nester, M. T. (2002). Microbiology- A human perspective. Host-microbe interactions (3rd ed.). McGraw Hill.
Ogunsuyi, O., & Akinnawo, C. (2012). Quality assessment of soaps produced from palm bunch ash-derived alkali and coconut oil. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 16, 363-366.
Okwu, D. E. (2004). Phytochemical and vitamin content of indigenous species of South Eastern Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture and the Environment, 6, 30-37.
Oluwaniyi, O. O., Oloruntele, I. O., Olaniyi, O. B., Sekoni, H. A., & Hamza, M. I. (2023). Production and characterization of biodiesel from Prunus amygdalus "dulcis" seed oil. International Journal of Scientific Research in Chemical Sciences, 10, 2455-3174.
Onyango, P. V., Oyaro, N., Aloys, O., Linda, M., & Wesley, N. O. (2014). Assessment of the physicochemical properties of selected commercial soaps manufactured and sold in Kenya. Open Journal of Applied Sciences, 4, 433-440. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojapps.2014.48040
Opara, I. J., Ushie, O. A., Aondoyima, I., & Onudibia, M. E. (2019). Phytochemical screening, proximate and vitamin composition of Cucumismelo seeds (sweet melon). International Journal of Research in Informative Science Application & Techniques, 3(1), 193122-193128. https://doi.org/10.46828/ijrisat.v3i1.51
Oyedele, A. O. (2002). The skin tolerance of shea fat employed as excipient in topical preparations. Nigerian Journal of Natural Products and Medicine, 6, 26-29. https://doi.org/10.4314/njnpm.v6i1.11687
Pagare, S., Bhatia, M., Tripathi, N., Pagare, & Bansal, Y. K. (2015). Secondary metabolites of plants and their role: overview. Current Trends in Biotechnology and Pharmacy, 9(3), 293-304.
Poole, K. (2002). Mechanisms of bacterial biocide and antibiotic resistance. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 92, S55-S64. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2672.92.5s1.8.x
Arefin, P., Tamjid-Us-Sakib, Habib, M. S., Saha, T., & Boby, F. (2019). Evaluation of pH of facial cleansers available in the Bangladeshi market. Novel Approaches in Drug Designing and Development, 5(2), 555660. https://doi.org/10.19080/NAPDD.2020.05.555660
Ramos-Aguilar, A. L., Ornelas-Paz, J., Tapia-Vargas, L. M., Gardea-Bejar, A. A., Yahia, E. M., Ornelas-Paz, J. d. J., Perez-Martinez, J. D., Rios-Velasco, C., & Escalante-Minakata, P. (2021). Metabolomic analysis and physical attributes of ripe fruits from Mexican Creole (Persea Americana var. Drymifolia) and 'Hass' avocados. Food Chemistry, 354, 129571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129571
Gfatter, R., Hackl, P., & Braun, F. (1997). Effects of soap and detergents on skin surface pH, stratum corneum hydration and fat content in infants. Dermatology, 195(3), 258-262. https://doi.org/10.1159/000245955
Rita, N., Baruah, K. K., Sarma, S., Bhuyan, R., Roy, D. C., & Mithu, D. (2015). Phytochemical screening of different plants of north-eastern region of India. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 2, 9-11.
Russell, A. D. (1998). Mechanisms of bacterial resistance to antibiotics and biocides. Progress in Medicinal Chemistry, 35, 134-197. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6468(08)70036-5
Sani, I., Owoade, C., Abdulhamid, A., Isah, M. F., & Bello, F. (2014). Evaluation of physicochemical properties, phytochemicals and mineral composition of Cocos nucifera L. (coconut) kernel oil. International Journal of Advanced Research in Chemical Science, 1, 22-30.
Sofowara, A. (1993). Screening for bioactive agents. In Medicinal plants and traditional medicine in Africa (2nd ed., pp. 134-156). Spectrum Books Limited.
Stray, F. (1998). The natural guide to medicinal herbs and plants (pp. 12-16). Tiger Books International.
Taiwo, A., Oluwadare, I., Shobo, A., & Amolegbe, S. (2008). Physical and chemical characteristics of soap. Scientific Research Essay, 3, 515-517.
Tawheed, A., & Monika, T. (2014). A comparative study on proximate composition, phytochemical screening, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Linum usitatisimum L. (flaxseeds). International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 3(4), 465-481.
Teow, C. C., Van-Den Truong, V., McFeeters, R. F., Thompson, R. L., Pecota, K. V., & Yencho, G. C. (2007). Antioxidant activities, phenolic and beta-carotene contents of sweet potato genotypes with varying flesh colours. Food Chemistry, 103, 829-838. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.09.033
United Nations Development Programme. (2000). Sustainable development goals. http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/
USDA. (2011). Avocado, almond, pistachio and walnut composition. Nutrient Data Laboratory. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 24.
Vivian, O. P., Nathan, O., Osano, A., Mesopirr, L., & Omwoyo, W. N. (2014). Assessment of the physicochemical properties of selected commercial soaps manufactured and sold in Kenya. Open Journal of Applied Sciences, 4, 433-440. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojapps.2014.48040
Warra, A. A., Wawata, I. G., Gunu, S. Y., & Atiku, F. A. (2011). Soap preparation from Soxhlet extracted Nigerian cotton seed oil. Advances in Applied Science Research, 2(5), 617-623.
Yahia, E. M., & Woolf, A. B. (2011). Avocado (Persea Americana Mill.). In E. M. Yahia (Ed.), Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits (pp. 125-186). Woodhead Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857092762.125
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Ibrahim Opeyemi Oloruntele, Sheriff Oluwagbenga Adeoye, Basheer Akanbi Jaji, Murtala Muhammad Ibrahim, Muhammed Ibrahim Hamza
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
